Effects of Reinforcement on Procrastination and Academic Achievement in Social Studies among Public Primary School Pupils in Zamfara State, Nigeria
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.64348/zije.2026656Keywords:
Procrastination, Reinforcement, academic Achievement and Social StudiesAbstract
This study examined the effects of positive reinforcement on procrastination and academic achievement among primary school pupils in Zamfara State. A quasi-experimental pre-test–post-test control-group design was adopted. The population comprised 3,250 primary school pupils, from which a sample of 150 pupils was selected using a multistage sampling procedure, with 75 pupils assigned to the experimental group and 75 to the control group. Data were collected using the Procrastination Questionnaire (PQ) and Social Studies Achievement Test (SSAT). Data were analysed using descriptive statistics, paired-samples t-test, gain-score comparison and Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA). The findings showed that the experimental group recorded a substantial reduction in procrastination, with the mean score decreasing from 32.96 at pre-test 8to 20.57 at post-test. The ANCOVA revealed a significant effect of positive reinforcement on procrastination, F(1,147) = 136.89, p < .001. Positive reinforcement also significantly improved academic performance, with the experimental group recording a mean gain of 13.73 points compared with 0.75 points for the control group. ANCOVA confirmed a significant group effect on academic performance, F(1,104) = 12.32, p < .001. The study recommended that positive reinforcement is an effective behavioural strategy for reducing procrastination and improving academic performance among primary school pupils. Teachers and school counsellors should incorporate appropriate reinforcement strategies into classroom and academic-support practices.
References
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Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011
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Salguero-Pazos, M. R., & Reyes-de-Cózar, S. (2023). Interventions to reduce academic procrastination: A systematic review. International Journal of Educational Research, 121, 102228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2023.102228
Royer, D. J., & Ennis, R. P. (2024). Student-delivered behavior-specific praise: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Education, 9, 1444394. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1444394
Pychyl, T. A., & Sirois, F. M. (2016). Procrastination, emotion regulation, and well-being. In G. L. Flett & P. L. Hewitt (Eds.), Procrastination, health, and well-being (pp. 163–188). Academic Press.
Costa, A., Moreira, D., Casanova, J., Azevedo, Â., Gonçalves, A., Oliveira, Í., Azevedo, R., & Dias, P. C. (2024). Determinants of academic achievement from the middle to secondary school education: A systematic review. Social Psychology of Education, 27, 3533–3572. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-024-09941-z
Costa, A., Moreira, D., Casanova, J., Azevedo, Â., Gonçalves, A., Oliveira, Í., Azevedo, R., & Dias, P. C. (2024). Determinants of academic achievement from the middle to secondary school education: A systematic review. Social Psychology of Education, 27(6), 3533–3572. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-024-09941-z DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-024-09941-z
Pychyl, T. A., & Sirois, F. M. (2016). Procrastination, emotion regulation, and well-being. In G. L. Flett & P. L. Hewitt (Eds.), Procrastination, health, and well-being (pp. 163–188). Academic Press. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-802862-9.00008-6
Royer, D. J., & Ennis, R. P. (2024). Student-delivered behavior-specific praise: A systematic literature review and meta-analysis. Frontiers in Education, 9, 1444394. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1444394 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1444394
Salguero-Pazos, M. R., & Reyes-de-Cózar, S. (2023). Interventions to reduce academic procrastination: A systematic review. International Journal of Educational Research, 121, 102228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2023.102228 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2023.102228
Sholikhah, L. D., & Suryanti, H. H. S. (2026). The effectiveness of technique positive reinforcement in reducing academic procrastination among final-year students: An experimental study. G-Couns: Jurnal Bimbingan dan Konseling, 10(1), 715–728. https://doi.org/10.31316/g-couns.v10i01.7325 DOI: https://doi.org/10.31316/g-couns.v10i01.7325
Sirois, F., & Pychyl, T. (2013). Procrastination and the priority of short-term mood regulation: Consequences for future self. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 7(2), 115–127. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12011
Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and human behavior. Macmillan.
Steel, P. (2007). The nature of procrastination: A meta-analytic and theoretical review of quintessential self-regulatory failure. Psychological Bulletin, 133(1), 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.133.1.65
Turner, M., & Hodis, F. A. (2023). A systematic review of interventions to reduce academic procrastination and implications for instructor-based classroom interventions. Educational Psychology Review, 35, 118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09838-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-023-09838-x
Vu, T. V., Scharmer, A. L., van Triest, E., van Atteveldt, N., & Meeter, M. (2024). The reciprocity between various motivation constructs and academic achievement: A systematic review and multilevel meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Educational Psychology, 44(2), 136–170. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2307960 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2024.2307960
Zacks, S., & Hen, M. (2018). Academic interventions for academic procrastination: A review of the literature. Journal of Prevention & Intervention in the Community, 46(2), 117–130. https://doi.org/10.1080/10852352.2016.1198154 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10852352.2016.1198154
